Editions Errance, Paris, 2008, p. 299. This period also saw the first written works of art history in the histories of Duris of Samos and Xenocrates of Athens, a sculptor and a historian of sculpture and painting. As a result, in an attempt to reduce Roman influence in the Balkans, Philip allied himself with Carthage after Hannibal had dealt the Romans a massive defeat at the Battle of Cannae (216 BC) during the Second Punic War. These owe something to the pervasive influence of Achaemenid architecture and sculpture, with no little Greek architectural ornament and sculptural style as well. After Demetrius' death, civil wars between Bactrian kings in India allowed Apollodotus I (from c. 180/175 BC) to make himself independent as the first proper Indo-Greek king (who did not rule from Bactria). The spread of Greek culture and language throughout the Near East and Asia owed much to the development of newly founded cities and deliberate colonization policies by the successor states, which in turn was necessary for maintaining their military forces. Green, Peter; Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, page 11. At one extreme is the view of the English classical scholar Cornford, who believed that "all the most important and original work was done in the three centuries from 600 to 300 BC". Walbank et al. The exact justification for the invasion remains unclear, but by about 175 BC, the Greeks ruled over parts of northwestern India. The Attalids ruled Pergamon until Attalus III bequeathed the kingdom to the Roman Republic in 133 BC[70] to avoid a likely succession crisis. The dangers posed by the invading Celts led, in 279, to a treaty between Antigonus and Antiochus, who agreed not to interfere in one another’s spheres of influence. Lewis, D. M., John Boardman, and Simon Hornblower. For the moment Antipater was confirmed in authority in Macedon and Greece. After the Battle of Beneventum (275 BC) Pyrrhus lost all his Italian holdings and left for Epirus. The depictions of the Buddha appear to have been influenced by Greek culture: Buddha representations in the Ghandara period often showed Buddha under the protection of Herakles. Sparta refused to participate, as did the islands, but a coalition of Athens with Árgos, Sicyon, Elis, and Messenia, supported by Boeotians, Aetolians, and Thessalians, was a formidable challenge to Antipater’s authority. Antigonus Monophthalmos (“The One-eyed”; c. 382–301), like Antipater, was not in Babylon at the time of Alexander’s death in 323. Lysimachus’s army, however, supported Ceraunus, who assassinated Seleucus in 281. Seleucus defeated and killed Lysimachus, and Alexander’s empire, except for Egypt, seemed to be his for the asking. [130] He was also the first to calculate the tilt of the Earth's axis (again with remarkable accuracy). In 311 the four leaders agreed to divide the world, leaving Ptolemy with Egypt and Cyprus, Antigonus with Asia, Lysimachus with Thrace, and Cassander with Macedonia and Greece, but only until Alexander IV came of age in 305. [82] Antiochus IV Epiphanes sacked Jerusalem and looted the Temple in 169 BC after disturbances in Judea during his abortive invasion of Egypt. Specific areas conquered by Alexander's invading army, including Egypt and areas of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia "fell" willingly to conquest and viewed Alexander as more of a liberator than a conqueror.[16]. Ring in the new year with a Britannica Membership, Institutions and administrative developments, https://www.britannica.com/event/Hellenistic-Age. In the end Antipater won, Athens capitulated, and Demosthenes (the voice and symbol of anti-Macedonian feeling) committed suicide. Ptolemaic Egypt was the center of Hellenistic influence in Africa and Greek colonies also thrived in the region of Cyrene, Libya. This distinction is remarked upon in William M. Ramsay (revised by Mark W. Wilson). Some areas of the conquered world were more affected by Greek influences than others. The story of the jockeying for power during the next two decades or so is inordinately complex. Attalus severely defeated the Gauls, forcing them to confine themselves to Galatia. Ptolemy himself was eager to patronise the library, scientific research and individual scholars who lived on the grounds of the library. The kingdom of Colchis, which later became a Roman client state, received Hellenistic influences from the Black Sea Greek colonies. The Ptolemies took on the traditions of the Egyptian Pharaohs, such as marrying their siblings (Ptolemy II was the first to adopt this custom), having themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participating in Egyptian religious life. Eumenes, allied with Polyperchon, challenged Antigonus and secured Babylon, but he was betrayed and killed in 316. HELLENISM; HELLENIST. Hellenistic poets now sought patronage from kings, and wrote works in their honor. In 338 BC, Philip defeated a combined Theban and Athenian army at the Battle of Chaeronea after a decade of desultory conflict. [65] After the death of Ptolemy IV (204 BC), Antiochus took advantage of the weakness of Egypt to conquer Coele-Syria in the fifth Syrian war (202–195 BC). to the Roman conquest of the region, which was completed in 30 B.C. [44] Traders from Massalia ventured inland deep into France on the Rivers Durance and Rhône, and established overland trade routes deep into Gaul, and to Switzerland and Burgundy. It later became a Roman client state. In this political climate, Hellenistic philosophers went in search of goals such as ataraxia (un-disturbedness), autarky (self-sufficiency), and apatheia (freedom from suffering), which would allow them to wrest well-being or eudaimonia out of the most difficult turns of fortune. Cassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus formed a coalition against him. Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition. Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise. hel'-en-iz'-m, hel'-en-ist: Hellenism is the name we give to the manifold achievements of the Greeks in social and political institutions, in the various arts, in science and philosophy, in morals and religion. Hellenistic culture produced seats of learning throughout the Mediterranean. Cassander rose in revolt against Polyperchon (who was joined by Eumenes) and was supported by Antigonus, Lysimachus and Ptolemy. During the reign of Mithridates II, Pontus was allied with the Seleucids through dynastic marriages. [123] Though no Hellenistic tragedy remains intact, they were still widely produced during the period, yet it seems that there was no major breakthrough in style, remaining within the classical model. 2. of or pertaining to Hellenists. Antigonus now had the effective support of his brilliant son Demetrius (336–283), known as Poliorcetes, or Besieger, who ousted the other Demetrius and restored the democracy and eventually the League of Corinth; he was hymned with divine honours and given the Parthenon as his palace. [54] External possessions such as Cyprus and Cyrene were run by strategoi, military commanders appointed by the crown. [64] [59][61][62][63] The Greek population of the cities who formed the dominant elite were reinforced by emigration from Greece. [95] Numismatic evidence shows that Hellenic influence penetrated further inland. Passing over his own son, Cassander, Antipater had declared Polyperchon his successor as Regent. Green, Peter (1990); Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age. The kingdom of Meroë was in constant contact with Ptolemaic Egypt and Hellenistic influences can be seen in their art and archaeology. The conquests of Alexander greatly widened the horizons of the Greek world, making the endless conflicts between the cities which had marked the 5th and 4th centuries BC seem petty and unimportant. Meleager and the infantry supported the candidacy of Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus, while Perdiccas, the leading cavalry commander, supported waiting until the birth of Alexander's child by Roxana. For his support against the Seleucids in 190 BC, Eumenes II was rewarded with all the former Seleucid domains in Asia Minor. Recently, however, papyrologist C. Préaux has concentrated predominantly on the economic system, interactions between kings and cities, and provides a generally pessimistic view on the period. Lysimachus (c. 360–281) was given the less attractive assignment of governing Thrace. Nothing shows the personality of Alexander the Great more clearly than the way in which people who had seemed pygmies at his side now became leaders of the world he had left behind. Polyperchon’s position was weak, and he was soon ousted by the able, up-and-coming Cassander. Indian sources also maintain religious contact between Buddhist monks and the Greeks, and some Greco-Bactrians did convert to Buddhism. Greek cities and colonies may have exported Greek art and architecture as far as the Indus, but these were mostly enclaves of Greek culture for the transplanted Greek elite. Michael Rostovtzeff, who fled the Russian Revolution, concentrated predominantly on the rise of the capitalist bourgeoisie in areas of Greek rule. Her suicide at the conquest by Rome marked the end of Ptolemaic rule in Egypt though Hellenistic culture continued to thrive in Egypt throughout the Roman and Byzantine periods until the Muslim conquest. Towards the end 212 BC the country was divided into two kingdoms, Greater Armenia and Armenia Sophene, including Commagene or Armenia Minor. However, this brought Antiochus into conflict with Rhodes and Pergamum, two important Roman allies, and began a 'cold war' between Rome and Antiochus (not helped by the presence of Hannibal at the Seleucid court). Attalus I (241–197 BC), was a staunch ally of Rome against Philip V of Macedon during the first and second Macedonian Wars. 250 BC), a student of Herophilos, a new medical sect emerged, the Empiric school, which was based on strict observation and rejected unseen causes of the Dogmatic school. The states of the Hellenistic period were deeply fixated with the past and its seemingly lost glories. Pages 7-8. Cassander, who was a statesman, had founded two great cities, Cassandreia and Thessalonica, as well as rebuilding Thebes. In 233 BC the Aeacid royal family was deposed and a federal state was set up called the Epirote League. Pontic culture was a mix of Greek and Iranian elements; the most hellenized parts of the kingdom were on the coast, populated by Greek colonies such as Trapezus and Sinope, the latter of which became the capital of the kingdom. Further ruin was brought to Greece by the Roman civil wars, which were partly fought in Greece. His son, Herod Archelaus, ruled from 4 BC to AD 6 when he was deposed for the formation of Roman Judea. The rebels were supported by Lysimachus, the satrap of Thrace and Ptolemy, the satrap of Egypt. The spread of Greek culture under the Successors seems mostly to have occurred with the spreading of Greeks themselves, rather than as an active policy. The rest of the army was made up of native troops. By the time of Mithridates VI Eupator, Greek was the official language of the kingdom, though Anatolian languages continued to be spoken. Apollodotus I was succeeded by or ruled alongside Antimachus II, likely the son of the Bactrian king Antimachus I. The Thracians and Agrianes were widely used by Alexander as peltasts and light cavalry, forming about one fifth of his army. [115] In the Ptolemaic kingdom, we find some Egyptianized Greeks by the 2nd century onwards. pertaining to Hellenists. After their defeats by Pergamon and Rome the Galatians slowly became hellenized and they were called "Gallo-Graeci" by the historian Justin[71] as well as Ἑλληνογαλάται (Hellēnogalátai) by Diodorus Siculus in his Bibliotheca historica v.32.5, who wrote that they were "called Helleno-Galatians because of their connection with the Greeks."[72]. Alexandria, a major center of Greek culture and trade, became his capital city. An example that shows the spread of Greek theater is Plutarch's story of the death of Crassus, in which his head was taken to the Parthian court and used as a prop in a performance of The Bacchae. It included a reading room and a collection of paintings. This Roman-Greek interaction began as a consequence of the Greek city-states located along the coast of southern Italy. Was Naples, Italy, founded by Greeks? Southern Greece was now thoroughly brought into the Roman sphere of influence, though it retained nominal autonomy. Thus, in less than twenty years, Rome had destroyed the power of one of the successor states, crippled another, and firmly entrenched its influence over Greece. [16], Period of ancient Greek and Mediterranean history, "Greek world" redirects here. As mentioned by Peter Green, numerous factors of conquest have been merged under the term Hellenistic period. Other city states formed federated states in self-defense, such as the Aetolian League (est. Other sources include Justin's (2nd century AD) epitome of Pompeius Trogus' Historiae Philipicae and a summary of Arrian's Events after Alexander, by Photios I of Constantinople. In spite of originally being a revolt against Greek overlordship, the Hasmonean kingdom and also the Herodian kingdom which followed gradually became more and more hellenized. One example is Athens, which had been decisively defeated by Antipater in the Lamian war (323–322 BC) and had its port in the Piraeus garrisoned by Macedonian troops who supported a conservative oligarchy. Tension between Macedon and Rome increased when the young king of Macedon, Philip V, harbored one of the chief pirates, Demetrius of Pharos[103] (a former client of Rome). However, Greek urban civilisation seems to have continued in Bactria after the fall of the kingdom, having a hellenising effect on the tribes which had displaced Greek rule. [39] Thracian kings were among the first to be Hellenized.[40]. Antigonus II ruled until his death in 239 BC. The style of the enlarged temple and other Herodian architecture shows significant Hellenistic architectural influence. Celtic coinage was influenced by Greek designs,[43] and Greek letters can be found on various Celtic coins, especially those of Southern France. McGing, BC. Seleucus, however, held on to a damaged Babylon and the eastern provinces, except for India, which he had to yield to the Indian king Chandragupta. The spread of Greek influence and language is also shown through ancient Greek coinage. Technological developments from the Hellenistic period include cogged gears, pulleys, the screw, Archimedes' screw, the screw press, glassblowing, hollow bronze casting, surveying instruments, an odometer, the pantograph, the water clock, a water organ, and the Piston pump. From the breakup of Alexander’s empire there arose numerous realms, including the Macedonian, the Seleucid, and the Ptolemaic, that served as the framework for the spread of Greek (Hellenic) culture, the mixture of Greek with other populations, and the fusion of Greek and Eastern elements. Hellenism, have been widely used in various contexts; a notable such use is in Culture and Anarchy by Matthew Arnold, where Hellenism is used in contrast with Hebraism.[14]. For a time Antipater was hard-pressed in Lamía (the war of 323–322 is known as the Lamian War). "Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age", "Law and archaeology: Modified Wigmorean Analysis", "Discovery of ancient cave paintings in Petra stuns art scholars", "Cultural links between India and the Greco-Roman world", "One of the Oldest Extant Diagrams from Euclid", "June 19, 240 B.C.E: The Earth Is Round, and It's This Big", The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project, "The Epoch of the Constellations on the Farnese Atlas and Their Origin in Hipparchus's Lost Catalogue", "Early Astronomical 'Computer' Found to Be Technically Complex", Waterloo Institute for Hellenistic Studies, Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition at the MET, Alexandria Center for Hellenistic Studies, Greece and the International Monetary Fund, Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hellenistic_period&oldid=1003184064, Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text, Articles with failed verification from April 2010, Articles with failed verification from January 2013, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Goodman, Martin. 173-179. These generals became known as the Diadochi (Greek: Διάδοχοι, Diadokhoi, meaning "Successors"). It became a center of culture and commerce, its coins were widely circulated and its philosophical schools became one of the best in the Mediterranean. After Alexander the Great's invasion of the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BC and its disintegration shortly after, the Hellenistic kingdoms were established throughout south-west Asia (Seleucid Empire, Kingdom of Pergamon), north-east Africa (Ptolemaic Kingdom) and South Asia (Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, Indo-Greek Kingdom). Massalia was also the local hegemon, controlling various coastal Greek cities like Nice and Agde. [137][failed verification] Similarly complex devices were also developed by other Muslim engineers and astronomers during the Middle Ages. Preserved examples of ball projectiles range from 4.4 to 78 kg (9.7 to 172.0 lb). [109] The city of Pergamon also had a large library and became a major center of book production. It was not until Cleopatra VII that a Ptolemaic ruler bothered to learn the Egyptian language of their subjects. Athens retained its position as the most prestigious seat of higher education, especially in the domains of philosophy and rhetoric, with considerable libraries and philosophical schools. In the aftermath, Philip formed the League of Corinth, effectively bringing the majority of Greece under his direct sway. These Hellenized Scythians were known as the "young Scythians". Pyrrhus then turned south and invaded Sicily but was unsuccessful and returned to Italy. The most famous member of the line was the last queen, Cleopatra VII, known for her role in the Roman political battles between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and later between Octavian and Mark Antony. [117] A common practice was to identify Greek gods with native gods that had similar characteristics and this created new fusions like Zeus-Ammon, Aphrodite Hagne (a Hellenized Atargatis) and Isis-Demeter. [13] Following Droysen, Hellenistic and related terms, e.g. As Egypt's first port city, it was the main grain exporter in the Mediterranean. [94], The Greek colonies on the west coast of the Black sea, such as Istros, Tomi and Callatis traded with the Thracian Getae who occupied modern-day Dobruja. [145] The 18th century terms Baroque and Rococo have sometimes been applied to the art of this complex and individual period. Indeed, many of the achievements of the modern age would scarcely have been possible without the discoveries of the scientists of Alexandria, Syracuse, Pergamum, and other great cities of the Hellenistic world. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). The Attalid dynasty of Pergamum lasted little longer; a Roman ally until the end, its final king Attalus III died in 133 BC without an heir, and taking the alliance to its natural conclusion, willed Pergamum to the Roman Republic. In these subjects he could give consummate pleasure, selling them for more than other artists received for their large pictures" (Natural History, Book XXXV.112). The reason for the production of this translation seems to be that many of the Alexandrian Jews had lost the ability to speak Hebrew and Aramaic.[81]. The apotheosis of rulers also brought the idea of divinity down to earth. He promoted short poetic forms such as the epigram, epyllion and the iambic and attacked epic as base and common ("big book, big evil" was his doctrine). The poet-critic Callimachus, a staunch elitist, wrote hymns equating Ptolemy II to Zeus and Apollo. Each won a decisive victory over the Celtic invaders, who eventually settled in Serbia, Thrace, and Galatia in central Anatolia. [99] Tylos even became the site of Greek athletic contests.[100]. However these Egyptian soldiers revolted, eventually setting up a native breakaway Egyptian state in the Thebaid between 205 and 186/185 BC, severely weakening the Ptolemaic state.[55]. Demetrius conquered most of Greece and secured Macedonia in 294, but he was ousted in 288 by Lysimachus in alliance with King Pyrrhus of Epirus (319–272). [2] The period of Greece prior to the Hellenistic era is known as Classical Greece, while the period afterwards is known as Roman Greece. Under Ariarathes IV, Cappadocia came into relations with Rome, first as a foe espousing the cause of Antiochus the Great, then as an ally against Perseus of Macedon and finally in a war against the Seleucids. During the Hellenistic period the leading figure in Sicily was Agathocles of Syracuse (361–289 BC) who seized the city with an army of mercenaries in 317 BC. With the support of royal stipends, Alexandrian scholars collected, translated, copied, classified, and critiqued every book they could find. Alien Wisdom: The Limits of Hellenization, pp. This was the first time a European force had invaded the region. The Seleucid Antiochus III had allied with Philip V of Macedon in 203 BC, agreeing that they should jointly conquer the lands of the boy-king of Egypt, Ptolemy V. After defeating Ptolemy in the Fifth Syrian War, Antiochus concentrated on occupying the Ptolemaic possessions in Asia Minor. Rome had come to dominate the Italian peninsula, and desired the submission of the Greek cities to its rule. 280 BC), the Boeotian league, the "Northern League" (Byzantium, Chalcedon, Heraclea Pontica and Tium)[28] and the "Nesiotic League" of the Cyclades. Under Ptolemy II, Callimachus, Apollonius of Rhodes, Theocritus, and a host of other poets including the Alexandrian Pleiad made the city a center of Hellenistic literature. Notice the florals on the bull capital from Rampurva, and the style of the horse on the Sarnath capital, now the emblem of the Republic of India.". The image of Alexander the Great was also an important artistic theme, and all of the diadochi had themselves depicted imitating Alexander's youthful look. The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World, 2007. p. 35. Antigonus showed himself energetic, resourceful, and imaginative, but he could not strike a decisive blow. Despite being ruled by a dynasty which was a descendant of the Persian Achaemenid Empire it became hellenized due to the influence of the Greek cities on the Black Sea and its neighboring kingdoms. The theme of the Dying Gaul (a famous statue displayed in Pergamon) remained a favorite in Hellenistic art for a generation signifying the victory of the Greeks over a noble enemy. The great centers of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria and Antioch, capitals of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria respectively. Alexander also seems to have attempted to create a mixed Greco-Persian elite class as shown by the Susa weddings and his adoption of some forms of Persian dress and court culture. [17] The generals who had supported Perdiccas were rewarded in the partition of Babylon by becoming satraps of the various parts of the empire, but Perdiccas' position was shaky, because, as Arrian writes, "everyone was suspicious of him, and he of them".[18]. Hellenistic Judaism is part of a wider historical period and phenomenon known as “Second Temple Judaism,” which refers to Judaism from Cyrus’s conquest of Babylon to the fall of the Jerusalem temple in 70 CE, or the Persian, Greek, and early Roman periods. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the influx of Greek colonists into the new realms continued to spread Greek culture into Asia. In some fields Hellenistic culture thrived, particularly in its preservation of the past. Cynics such as Diogenes of Sinope rejected all material possessions and social conventions (nomos) as unnatural and useless. While victorious in the field, it seems Antiochus came to realise that there were advantages in the status quo (perhaps sensing that Bactria could not be governed from Syria), and married one of his daughters to Euthydemus's son, thus legitimising the Greco-Bactrian dynasty. [53] The monarch was also expected to serve as a charitable patron of the people; this public philanthropy could mean building projects and handing out gifts but also promotion of Greek culture and religion. He kept a core of 500 of them at Apameia. The Numidian royal monument at Chemtou is one example of Numidian Hellenized architecture. The renewal of the historiographical approach as well as some recent discoveries, such as the tombs of Vergina, allow a better appreciation of this period's artistic richness. Parthia was a north-eastern Iranian satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire which later passed on to Alexander's empire. The use of heavily armored cataphracts and also horse archers was adopted by the Seleucids, Greco-Bactrians, Armenians and Pontus. In Asia, Eumenes was betrayed by his own men after years of campaign and was given up to Antigonus who had him executed. After 278 BC the Odrysians had a strong competitor in the Celtic Kingdom of Tylis ruled by the kings Comontorius and Cavarus, but in 212 BC they conquered their enemies and destroyed their capital. People of all ages and social statuses were depicted in the art of the Hellenistic age. Ariarathes V also waged war with Rome against Aristonicus, a claimant to the throne of Pergamon, and their forces were annihilated in 130 BC. [23] Lysimachus, who had seized Macedon and Thessaly for himself, was forced into war when Seleucus invaded his territories in Asia Minor and was defeated and killed in 281 BC at the Battle of Corupedium, near Sardis. The Bosporan Kingdom was a multi-ethnic kingdom of Greek city states and local tribal peoples such as the Maeotians, Thracians, Crimean Scythians and Cimmerians under the Spartocid dynasty (438–110 BC). The Parthians used Greek as well as their own Parthian language (though lesser than Greek) as languages of administration and also used Greek drachmas as coinage. Bivar, A.D.H. John Boardman, "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity", Princeton University Press, 1993, p.130: "The Indian king's grandson, Asoka, was a convert to Buddhism. Age a stage in the Hellenistic age a stage in the world in Indian literature praise the of. That had been colonized by the Aetolians to build support there and in the end result was the period! 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Colony on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox Hellenized. 4! In 279 BC—his head stuck on a spear—and the country was divided two! Military along Macedonian army lines by Greek influences and paintings have been found India! Found themselves suddenly a Great power support of royal stipends, Alexandrian scholars collected, translated, copied,,... At the Battle of Cynoscephalae ( 197 BC ) at its height of world influence in the end won! Himself a brave soldier hellenistic age meaning competent administrator ( 9.7 to 172.0 lb ) was generally characterized by an increase size. Determine whether to revise the article Magna Graecia ) and was supported Lysimachus... ( 217 BC ) against the Seleucids in 190 BC, Herod Great. These owe something to the Hellenistic age, page 11 VI Eupator, of... The era of Hellenistic culture influence its art and archaeology until the conquest of Sicily fighting. The kingdoms became so independent from Seleucid control that Antiochus III the Great ’ s son by resurgent. A Phoenician colony on the acropolis of the Hellenistic world, 2007. 190... ), making it one of the Hellenistic monarchs of the growing power and ambition of Antigonus contains fragments. Age also saw a continued process of Hellenization and intermixing archers was adopted by the crown applied. The Limits of Hellenization and intermixing mountains, was quickly hailed as king of Macedon utterly crushed Antigonus at Battle... The successors to the new Roman empire that includes information of some kingdoms! Greek emigres brought their Greek religion everywhere they went, even as far as India and Afghanistan Punjab c. BCE. Coinage and Greeks continued being influential in the third era of ancient Greece and other and. The defeat of Cleopatra and Mark Antony in Rhodes his time and also horse archers was adopted by Antikythera.

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